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环境生态学---第十章--捕食的性质教学教材

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环境生态学---第十章--捕食的性质\n\n\n捕食一个物种的成员以另一物种成员为食,被捕食者常常被杀死.狭义捕食:动物吃动物广义捕食则包括动物以植物为食的现象(植食)以及茅膏菜、捕蝇草、瓶子草、猪笼草和狸藻等少数植物捕捉昆虫将其消化以吸取含氮物质的情况。\n\nPredatorscanbecategorizedas(i)herbivoreswhichconsumeplanttissue,(ii)carnivoreswhichfoodinanimaltissueand(iii)omnivoreswhichfeedonboth.Thedifferencebetweenanimalsandplantsaspreytypesrequireddifferentphysiologicalandbehavioraladaptations,andhasleadtorepeatedevolutionarydivergencebetweencarnivorousandherbivorouslineages.Carnivoresandherbivores肉食者和草食者捕食者可以划分为(i)消费植物组织的草食者,(ii)摄食动物组织的肉食者和(iii)既摄食植物组织也摄食动物组织的杂食者。动物、植物食性的差异需要不同的生理和行为适应,从而导致肉食者与草食者世系之间反复的进行分歧。\nPredatorsvaryinthenumberofspeciesofpreytheywillfeedon,withsomespeciesbeingspecialists,whilstothersaremoregeneralist.Generally,parasitestendtobemorespecialistthantruepredatorsandherbivorestendtobemorespecialistthancarnivores.Generalistsandspecialists泛化种和特化种捕食者随其摄取猎物的数量多少而变化,某些捕食者是特化种,而另一些是泛化种。一般来说,寄生者比典型捕食者更为特化、而草食者比肉食者更为特化。\n健壮的肉食者\n新西兰美利诺羊\nDopredatorsandparasitesregulatethepopulationsizeoftheirprey?Thisisnotassimpleqquestionasitmayappear.Therearetwomainissues:(I)theeffectofanyonepredatormayonlybeasmallcomponentofthetotalmortalitycausesaffectingapreyspecies,soremovalofthepredatorwillhaveonlyaminoreffect;(ii)predationmaykillanimalswhichweregoingtodieanyway,sotherewillbenoimpactonthefinalpreypopulationsize.However,inanumberofcasesthereisclearevidencethatpredatorshaveaconsiderableimpactonpreynumbers.Theimpactofpredatorsonpreypopulationsize\n捕食者对猎物种群大小的影响捕食者和寄生者是否能够调节其猎物种群的大小呢?这一问题并不像看上去的那么简单。有两种主要观点:(i)任一捕食者的作用,只占猎物种总死亡率的很小一部分,因此去除捕食者对猎物种仅有微弱效果;(ii)捕食者只是杀死了对象种中即将死亡的个体,所以最终对猎物种群大小没有影响。然而,在一些例子中确有明显证据表明捕食者对猎物数量有重要影响。\n猎物呢?\nTheLotka_Volterrapredator-preymodelisasimplemathematicalmodelrepresentingtheinteractionbetweenpredatorsandtheirprey.Itmakesthreesimplifyingassumptions:(i)thereisonlyonepredatorandonepreyspeciesinvolvedintheinteraction;(ii)preynumbersincreaseifthenumberofpredatorsfallsbelowathresholdanddecreaseiftherearemorepredators;and(iii)predatornumbersincreaseifthenumberofpreyrisesaboveathresholdanddecreaseiftherearefewerprey.Thissimplemodelmakesaninterestingprediction:predatorandpreypopulationswilltendtocycle,asisobservedinnaturalpredator-preydynamics.Lotka-Volterrapredator-preymodel\nLotka-Volerra捕食者-猎物模型Lotka-Volterra捕食者-猎物模型是描述捕食者与猎物间相互关系的一个简单的数学模型。这一模型做了三个简单化假设:(i)相互关系中仅有一种捕食者与一种猎物;(ii)如果捕食者数量下降到某一阈值以下,猎物数量就上升,而捕食者数量如果增多,猎物种数量就下降和(iii)如果猎物数量上升到某一阈值,捕食者数量就增多,而猎物种数量如果很少,捕食者数量就下降。这一简单的模型做了一个有趣的预测:捕食者和猎物种群动态会发生循环,就像在自然的捕食者-猎物种群动态中所观察到的那样。\nRelatedtopicsNatality,mortalityandpopulationPredatorbehaviorandpreygrowth(H2)response(J2)Populationdynamics–fluctuations,Thenatureofparasitism(K1)cyclesandchaos(H4)ThedynamicsofparasitismK2)相关主题出生率、死亡率和种群增长(H2)种群动态——波动、周期和混沌(H4)捕食行为和猎物反应(J2)寄生的性质(K1)寄生的动态(K2)\nGivenachoicebetweentwopotentialpreytypes,apredatorwhichisoptimizingitseffortshouldchoosethemostprofitableprey.Evidencefromcommonshorecrabsandpiedwagtailsdemonstratesthatpreyofasizewhichreturnthegreatestenergyrewardperunittimearepreferredoversmallerandlargerindividuals.KeyNotesProfitabilityofpreyJ2PREDATORBEHAVIORANDPREYRESPNSE\nJ2捕食行为和猎物反应要点猎物收益率面对两种类型猎物的选择时,捕食者要获得最佳捕获努力,就应该选择收益最大的猎物。真蟹和白脊令的证据表明捕食者优先选择能使其在单位时间内获得最大能量的一定大小的猎物,而不是比该体积更大或更小的猎物。鸟鸟\nPredatorsmayalteror‘switch’theirpreferenceforaparticularpreyspeciesdependingontheabundanceofthatspecies,Whenthisoccurs,commonpreyareconsumedsuperproportionatelywhilstlesscommonpreyarelargelyignored.Switchingbetweenpreytypes猎物转换依据猎物种数量的多少,捕食者有时会转换其选择而捕食某一特定的猎物种。这时捕食者主要捕食优势种猎物而大大忽略其他猎物。\nItisgenerallyexpectedthatathighdensitiesofprey,apredator’sconsumptionratewillincreaseandthenflattenoutaspreysaturationoccurs,thisrelationshipistermedthefunctionalresponseandmayadoptdifferentpatterns,whichcanbestereotypedintothreeclasses:functionalresponsesI,IIandIII.Theeffectofpreydensity–functionalresponses猎物密度影响——功能反应一般认为在高猎物密度下,捕食者的摄食率会增加,然后随猎物饱和达到最大速度。这种关系称为功能反应,可能采用多种模式,传统上分为三种类型:功能反应I、II和III。\nToobtainfood,apredatormustfirstsearchforitspreyandthen‘handle’(catch,processandeat)it.Dietwidthcanberegardedasbeingdeterminedbyabalancebetweenageneraliststrategyofsearchingforawidevarieyofprey(relativelyeasy)andaspecialiststrategyofsearchingforonetypeofpreyandhandlingthatveryefficiently.Optimalforagingtheoryassumesthatevolutionwillhaveoptimizedpredatorbehaviortomaximizetherateofenergygainandmakespredictionsabouthowweshouldexpectpredatorstobalancesearchingandhandling.Searchingandhandling\n搜寻和处理为得到食物,捕食者必须首先搜寻猎物,然后处理(抓住、加工和吃掉猎物)。可以认为捕食者食谱的宽度是由泛化种对策与特化种对策之间的权衡决定的。泛化种对策捕食者寻找多种猎物(相对容易),特化种对策捕食者寻找一类猎物,非常有效的处理它。最佳觅食理论假定进化会最优化动物行为以使其获得的能量效率最大,从而做出捕食者如何权衡搜寻与处理的预测。\nPredator-preyexperimentsinthelaboratoryindicatethatinsimpleenvironment,either(i)predatorsareabletoconsumeallpreyindividuals,or(ii)thepredatorpopulationbecomesextinctandthepreysurvives.If,however,thehabitatismorecomplexsomepreyrefugesandcoexistencebetweenpredatorsandpreymayoccur.Incorollarywiththeroleofhabitatpatchinessinmaintainingcoexistencebetweencompetingspecies(seetopicI1),environmentalheterogeneityislikelytobeofcriticalimportanceinallowingpredatorsandpreytocoexist.Heterogeneityandpreyrefuges\n异质性和猎物隐蔽处实验室捕食者—猎物实验表明在一个单纯环境中,或(i)捕食者吃掉所有猎物个体,或(ii)捕食者种群消亡而猎物存活。然而,如果环境更为复杂,则一些猎物个体可能在猎物避难所中摆脱捕食,从而出现捕食者—猎物的共存。由于生境斑块在维持竞争种间共存中所起的作用(见I1)推论,环境异质性很可能在允许捕食与猎物共存中具有关键的重要意义。\nPredatorsdonotsolelyrespondtothedistributionanddensityofprey–theymayalsorespondtothedistributionofcompetingpredators.Predatorswilltendtoaggregateinthemostprofitablepatches,butpredatorcrowdingwillreducethepatchprofitabilityuntilitisbettertomovetoanotherlesscrowdedpatch.Theidealfreedistributiontheorysuggeststhatpredatorsshouldmoveamongsitesuntilprofitabilityisequal.Theidealfreedistribution\n理想自由分布捕食者并不单独对猎物的分布与密度做出反应——它们对与之竞争的捕食者的分布也会反应。捕食者趋向于聚集在最有利可图的斑块中,但捕食者之间的拥挤会降低斑块的有利度,直到移到另一块不太拥挤的斑块中去会更好。理想自由分布理论认为捕食者会在各分布区间移动,直到各区有利度相等。\nRelatedtopicsThematureofcompetition(I1)ThenatureofpredationJ1)Plantsdefendthemselvesfrompredationintwomainways:(i)toxicityandunpalatablity,and(ii)defensivestructures.Thereisavastvarietyofchemicalammunitionfoundintheplantkingdomusedtodefendplantsagainstattacksfrompredatorsandparasites.Thesesecondarycompoundsmayeitherbedirectlytoxicortheymayreducethefoodvalueoftheplant,forexample,byreducingtheavailablityoftheleaftissueproteintotheanimalgut.Defensivestructuresexistonavarietyofscales,fromsmallhairsontheleafsurfacewhichmaytrapinsectsandotherinvertebrates,tolargespineswhichdetermammalianherbivores.Boththelevelsofsecondarycompoundsandthesizeofdefensivestructuresmaybeelevatedor‘induced’inplantsthathavesuffereddefoliation.Plantdefense\n植物防御植物以两种主要方式来保护自己免遭捕食:(i)毒性与差的味道,和(ii)防御结构。在植物王国已发现大量的多种化学武器来保卫植物免遭捕食和寄生者的进攻。这些次生性化合物或直接有毒,或可降低植物的食物价值,如降低动物肠道对植物叶组织蛋白的吸收。防御结构在各种水平上都存在,从叶表面可陷住昆虫及其他无脊椎动物的微小绒毛,到可阻止哺乳类草食动物的大型针刺。经历过落叶的植物,其次生化合物水平及防御结构大小都会提高或“被诱导”。相关主题竞争的性质(I1)捕食的性质(J1)\n仙人掌\n疾藜草\n此课件下载可自行编辑修改,仅供参考! 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