生态学复习要点

复习要点第一章Introductiontoecology生态学概述Whatisecology?Ecologyisthestudyofinteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment.interaction:actiononeachother;Organism：ananimal,plant,humanoranyotherlivingthings;Environment:Physicalenvironmentandbioticenvironment.Physicalenvironment：Comprisingsuchthingsastemperature,wateravailability,windspeed,soilacidity);Physicalenvironmentcanbenaturalorman-made.Mostly,itisamixofthetwo.Questions:Whatisanurbanphysicalenvironment?Naturalorman-made?Whataresomeofthemajorelementsthatcomprisetheurbanphysicalenvironment?Inwhatwaysdoestheurbanphysicalenvironmentinfluenceitsresidents?Bioticenvironment：Comprisinganyinfluencesonanorganismthatareexertedbyotherorganisms,includingcompetition,predation,parasitism,andcooperation.Givesomeexamplesoftheaboveinfluencesyouobserveinyoursurroundings.Questions：Whataresomeofthebioticelementsyouobserveinacity?Howdotheyinfluencethehumanresidentsinthecity?Areallkindsofenvironmentshuman-controlled?Isthereanynaturalenvironmentinitstruesense?Whatisurbanecology?thestudyofinteractionsbetweenurbanorganismsandtheirenvironment.UrbanorganismsVSnaturalorganisms:UrbanenvironmentVSnaturalenvironment:UrbanorganismHumanbeings(Demographicfeatures)Animals(home-keptanimalsandwideanimals)Micro-organism(bacteriaandviruses)Plants(flowers,grasses,trees)13\nHumanbeingsarethedominantspeciesofurbanorganismsUrbanenvironmentPhysical:Man-madeelements(buildings,streets,infrastructures);Biotic:animalsandplants(homekeptsuchaspets\gardens)andwild(birds,rats,mosquitoes)SizeofyourstudyinecologyIndividualsPopulationsCommunitiesEcosystemsIndividualsAnysinglelivingthing.Studytheresponseofindividualstotheirenvironment;PopulationsThetotalnumberofanimalsorplantsofonespecies.Studyspecies,populationabundance,andpopulationfluctuations;CommunitiesAmixtureofpopulationsofdifferentspecies.Studytheprocessdeterminingtheircompositionandstructure.EcosystemsComprisethebioticcommunityinconjunctionwiththeassociatedcomplexofphysicalfactorsthatcharacterizethephysicalenvironment.Westudysystemcomponents,biomass,energyflow,nutrientcycle,andsystemfunctions.Discussons:Discussthefourlevelsofstudyintermsofurbanecology.Keyissues:DefinitionofEcologyDefinitionofurbanecologyFourlevelsofstudyinecology13\nFourlevelsofstudyinurbanecologyHomework:Comparethenaturalenvironmentwithurbanenvironment,andseewhatdifferencestheyhave.PrepareChapterTwo:UnderstandingEcosystems.第二章Ecosystemandenergyflow生态系统与能量流动Whatisanecosystem?*Adefinedspacewhichincludesplants,animals(organisms)andphysicalinteractions.•Anecosystemcanbeofanysizedependingonthecommunitiestobestudied.♦EcologiststendtothinkofecosystemintermsofenergyflowcarbonflowornutrientcyclesComponentsofanEcosystem♦Bioticalelements:1.Producers(plants,grass),2.Consumers(cows,rabbits,lions,tigers,andsoon)3.decomposers(bacteria,andfungus);•Non-bioticalelements:Organicelements,non-organicelementsandclimaticelements.Componentsofanecosystemr无生命成巧无机物质〔有机物质'生产者（绿色植物）I生命成分^消费者（动物）还原者（微生物）图2-1生态系统的组成（据云南大学生物系编＞19S3）13\nEnergyflowSomekeywordsofecosystem♦Ecosystemandthelawsofthermodynamics:♦Transferefficiency:•Disturbanceandrecovery:•Energyflowthroughacommunity:♦Nutrientrecycle:Ecosystemandthelawsofthermodynamics:•Firstlaw:Energycanneitherbecreatednordestroyed・•Secondlaw:Everytransformationresultsinareductionofthefreeenergyofthesystem・Transferefficiency:♦Theproportionofnetprimaryproductionthatflowsthroughtrophiclevels（营养层）dependsonthetransferefficienciesinthewayenergyisusedandpassedfromonesteptothenext・♦Therearethreecategoriesoftransferefficiency:Consumption13\nEfficiency(CE),AssimilationEfficiency(AE),andProductionEfficiency(PE).Disturbanceandrecovery:•Disturbance:Interruptionorinterferencethatoccurssufficientlyoftenforittohaveexertedsomeselectionpressureonthespeciesexperiencingit.♦InternaldisturbanceandexternaldisturbanceEnergyflowthroughacommunity:•Thepathwayofenergyatdifferenttrophiclevelsfordifferentcommunities・•FromCEtoAEtoPE.Nutrientrecycle:♦Watercycle♦Carboncycle•NitrogencycleQestions:•Wheredoestheenergyontheearthcome?Wheredoestheenergyinacitycome?*Isanecosystemopenorclosed?•Whatisthebalanceofanecosystem?•Giveanexampletoshowhowhumanactivitiesdestroythebalanceofanecosystem.Discussion:♦Discussthecomponentsandenergyflowofanurbanecosystem.第三章Urbanecosystem城市生态系统Whatisurban?•DifferentCountrieshavedifferentdefinitions;♦Threeelementscountindefiningacity:*1.Population*2.Industry•3.Municipation.U.S.definition:♦Urban:Populatedregionswithadensityof1600people/kmorgreaterandaminimumpopulationof2,500.•Metropolitan:Thoseconsistofacentralcitywithaminimumpopulationof50,000,thecountyinwhichatleast50%ofthepopulationofthecentralcitylives,andoutlyingcountieswithwell-definedlinkstothecentralcountyorcountiesbasedoncommutingpatterns・SouthAfricadefinition:13\n♦Urban:♦Builtupareas,includingvacantspacewithinaproclaimedmunicipalorlocalauthorizedboundariesGeneralDefinition•Identifiableplaceswithdefinedorfixedboundariesandahighdensityofpopulation・China'Definition♦Thecapitalofaprovinceoracountywithapopulationover2,000,ofwhichmorethan50%areurbanregisteredresidents・（1995）Whatisanurbanecosystem?♦Urbanecosystemmodelsarebasedontheinteractionofthesocial,biological,andphysicalcomponentsofacity.Asimplifiedmodelofurbanecosystem中国学者对城市生态系统的定义•城市生态系统（UrbanEcosystem指的是城市空间范围内的居民与自然环境系统和人工建造的社会环境系统相互作用而形成的统一体，属人工生态系统。（杨小波等，2000）•人、自然环境和社会环境是城市生态系统的三大组成部分。Human-beings（人）♦人口数量（populations）•人口结构（Populationstructures）♦空间分布（Spatialdistributionofpopulations）Naturalenvironment咱然环境系统包括大气、水体、土壤、岩石、矿产资源、太阳能等非生物系统和动物、植物、微生物等生物系统；•Naturalenvironmentconsistsofsuchnon-bioticalelementsasair,water,soil,rocks,minerals,solarenergyandbioticalelementsasanimals,plants,andmicro-organisms・SocialEnvironment（社会环境）•社会环境系统包括人工建造的物质环境系统（包括各类房屋建筑、道桥及运输工具、供电、供能、通风和市政管理设施及娱乐休闲设施等）和非物质环境系统(包括城市经济、文化与群众组织系统，社会服务系统、科学文化教育系统等)(man-madephysicalelementsandnon-physicalelements)城市生态系统的组成结构(structureofurbanecosys)•中国生态学家马世骏教授指出：城市生态系统是一个以人为中心的自然界、经济与社会的复合人工生态系统”第四章EcologicalSuccession^态演替13\nEcologicalSuccesstionEcologicalsuccession,afundamentalconceptinecology,referstomore-or-lesspredictableandorderlychangesinthecompositionorstructureofanecologicalcommunity.PrimarySuccessionBeginsinaplacewithoutanysoil,suchassidesofvolcanoes,Landslides,Flooding.Itstartswiththearrivaloflivingthingssuchaslichens(地衣)thatdonotneedsoiltosurvive・TheyarecalledPIONEERSPECIES・Explainthepregressofprimarysuccession:(Seeclasspresentations)SecondarySuccession:Beginsinaplacethatalreadyhassoilandwasoncethehomeoflivingorganisms.Itoccursfasterandhasdifferentpioneerspeciesthanprimarysuccession.Example:afterforestfires.ColonizationbySpecies：Theprocessofarrivalandhabitationofalienspeciesatanewsiteandtheestablishmentofacommunity.ClimaxCommunity:Thefinalorstablecommunityintheprocessofecologicalsuccessionistheclimaxcommunityorclimaticvegetation.Itisself-perpetuatingandinequilibriumwiththephysicalhabitat.Thereisnonetannualaccumulationoforganicmatterinaclimaxcommunitymostly.Theannualproductionisbalaneedinsuchacommunity.第五章Biodiversity生物多样性Whatdoyouthinkbiodiversitymeans?BiodiversityisthevarietyoflifeonEarthandtheessentialinterdependenceofalllivingthings13\nThereare3componentsofbiodiversity:1.DiversityofgenesChihuahuas,beagles,androttweilersarealldog—butthey'renotthesamebecausetheirgenesaredifferent.2.DiversityofspeciesForexample,monkeys,dragonflies,andmeadowbeautiesarealldifferentspecies3.VarietyofecosystemsPrairies,Ponds,andtropicalrainforestsareallecosystems.Eachoneisdifferent,withitsownsetofspecieslivinginit.Whyshouldweprotecbiodiversity?1.BiodiversityhasutilitarianValueUtilitarianValue=thevaluesomethinghasasameanstoanother'sUtilitarianvaluesinclude:GoodsServicesInformation2.Biodiversitycanprovideusdifferentservices.OxygenFoodCleanWaterMedicineAestheticsIdeas3.BiodiversityisgoodforecosystemstabilityMorediversified,morestable;Threatstobiodiversity:HabitatdestructionPollutionSpeciesIntroductionsGlobalClimateChangeExploitation13\n第六章UrbanPopulationandEnvironment城市人口与环境Urbanization:Whydopeoplewanttoliveincities?Urbanization:Theprocessofpeoplemovingfromruralareastotheurbanareas.DevelopedCountries:over70%ofthepopulationliveincities;China:36%in2004,andabout50%in2011.PopulationstructureAgestructure:young,mid,andoldSexstructure:maleandfemalenationalitystructure:hanandminoritiesHouseholdregistrationStructure:ruralorurbanFamilystructure:marriedorsingleEducation:high,literateandilliterateEmployment:employedandunemployedEnvironmentProblemsinChinaWaterpollutionAirpollutionSolidwastesAcidrainDesertificationForestryreductionResourceshortageFarmlandreductionLossofbio-diversityOzonedamageGlobalwarmingOngoingbioticpollution第七章Ecosystemservice生态服务功能Whatisecosystemservicefunctions?Ecosystemservicefunctionisthecapacityofnaturalprocessesandcomponentstoprovidegoodsandservicesthatsatisfyhumanneeds,directlyorindirectly.Ecosystemprovidesavarietyofproductsforhumanbeings,andmaintainsthefunctionsoflife-supportsystem.13\nWhatbenefitsaforestcanbringus?moderateweatherextremesandtheirimpacts?disperseseeds?mitigatedroughtandfloods?protectpeoplefromthesun'sharmfulultravioletrays?cycleandmovenutrients?protectstreamandriverchannelsandcoastalshoresfromerosion?detoxifyanddecomposewastes?controlagriculturalpests?maintainbiodiversity?generateandpreserveslsiandrenewtheirfertility?contributetoclimatestability?purifytheairandwater?regulatediseasecarryingorganisms?pollinatecropsandnaturalvegetationClassificationofecosystemservices:13\n生态系统服务功能EcosystemServices支持功能Supportingservices产咸供生形环环提级氧壤循循境初产土氮水生等1313第八章Globalclimatechange全球气候变化Whatisclimatechange?Climatechangeisachangeintheaverageweatherorachangeinthedistributenofweathereventsaroundanaverage(forexample,greaterorfewerextremeweatherevents).Climatechangemaybelimitedtoaspecificregion,ormayoccuracrossthewholeEarth(globalwarmingorgreenhouseeffect).WhatisGreenhouseeffect?Thegreenhouseeffectisanaturalmechanismthatretainstheheatemittedfromtheearth'ssurface.ClimatechangeisbelievedtobetheresulGreenhouseEffect.Consequenceofglobalwarming:a.Moredroughtsandmoreflooding:Whentheweathergetswarmer,evaporationfrombothlandandseaincreases.Thiscancausedroughtinareasoftheworldwheretheincreasedevaporationisnotcompensatedforbymoreprecipitation.Theextrawatervaporintheatmospherehastofallagainasextraprecipitation,whichcancausefloodinginotherplacesintheworld.b.Lessiceandsnow:Glaciersareshrinkingrapidlyatpresent.Theiceismeltingfaster.Inareasthatare13\ndependentonmeltwaterfrommountainareas,thiscancausedroughtandalackofdrinkingwater.Uptoasixthoftheworld'splivesinareasthatwillbeaffectedbythis.a.Moreextremeweatherincidents:Thewarmerclimatewillmostprobablycausemoreheatwaves,morecasesofheavyrainfallandalsopossiblyanincreaseinthenumberand/orseverityofstorms.b.Risingsealevel:Thesealevelrisesfortworeasons.Partlybecauseofthemeltingiceandsnow,andpartlybecauseofthethermalexpansionofthesea.Thermalexpansiontakesalongtime,butevenanincreaseintemperatureoftwodegreesCelsiusisexpected,induetime,tocauseariseinthewaterlevelofalmostametre.Alotoflandwillbelostandtheecosystemwillbedamaged.Whoisthetrouble-maker?ThegreenhouseeffectiscausedbyCO2.TheatmosphericcontentofgreenhousegasesCO2hasrisenrapidlyinaperiodcoveringapproximatelythelatest250years,andespeciallythelast50.AtpresenttheconcentrationofCO2intheatmosphereisabout385ppm(partspermillion).Beforeindustrializationitwasabout280ppm.AnalysesofaircontainedinicefromtheAntarcticicecapshowthatthereisfarmoreCO2intheairtodaythanatanytimeinthelast650,000years.Solutionsandactions:Burnlesscarbonandcapturemore.Controlcarbonsourceandcreatecarbonsink.MakeafairworldwithcarboncreditOneCarbonCreditisequaltoacertainamountofmoneythatpermitsyoutoemitonetonofCarbon.Theplaceorpeoplewhohavecarbonsinkscancreatecarboncreditsandsellthem.Thosewhohavecarbonsourcesmustbuycarboncreditstoemitcarbonintotheatmosphere.13\nActionsareneededrightnowEnergyrevolutionTransportationrevolutionChangeofourlife-styleProtectgreenplantsandoceansCooperationofallparts名词解释：1.Ecology:2.Ecosystem:3.Climaxcommunity:4.Foodchain:5.Ecosystemservice:6.Urbanecology:7.Decomposers:8.Ecologicalsuccession:9.Trophiclevel:10.Energyflow:13