(生态学及生物圈之介绍)x

Chapter50AnIntroductiontoEcologyandtheBiosphere(生態學及生物圈之介紹)\nKeyConcepts(基本觀念)50.1:Ecologyisthestudyofinteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironment.(生態學是研究生物與環境間之互動)50.2:Interactionsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironmentlimitthedistributionofspecies.(生物與環境間之互動限制物種之分佈)50.3:Abioticandbioticfactorsinfluencethestructureanddynamicsofaquaticbiomes.(非生物與生物因子影響水生生物之結構與動態)50.4:Climatelargelydeterminesthedistributionandstructureofterrestrialbiomes.(氣候決定陸生生物之結構與分佈)\nOverview:TheScopeofEcology(生態學的範疇)Overview:TheScopeofEcologyEcology(生態學)Isthescientificstudyoftheinteractions(互動)betweenorganismsandtheenvironmentTheseinteractions(互動)Determineboththedistribution(分佈)oforganismsandtheirabundance(豐度)\nEcology(生態學)Isanenormouslycomplexandexcitingareaofbiology.Revealstherichnessofthebiosphere(生物圈).Figure50.1.TherichnessofthebiosphereevidentinoneareaofaPanamanianforest.\nConcept50.1:EcologyisthestudyofinteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironmentEcology(生態學)Hasalonghistoryasadescriptivescience(描述性科學)Isalsoarigorousexperimentalscience(實驗性科學)Isanintegrativebiology(整合性生物學).\nOrganismsandtheEnvironment(生物與環境)TheenvironmentofanyorganismincludesAbiotic(非生物性),ornonlivingcomponents:temperature,sunlight,waterandnutrient.Biotic(生物性),orlivingcomponents:otherorganisms.Alltheorganismslivingintheenvironment,thebiota(生物相)(Biota,biomass,biomes)\nEcologyandEvolutionaryBiology(演化生物學)EventsthatoccurinecologicaltimeAffectlifeonthescaleofevolutionarytime.\nEnvironmentalcomponents(環境成份、組成)Affectthedistributionandabundanceoforganisms(影響生物的分佈與豐度).Figure50.2.DistributionandabundanceoftheredkangarooinAustralia,basedonaerialsurvey.Kangaroos/km2>2010–205–101–50.1–1<0.1LimitsofdistributionClimateinnorthernAustraliaishotandwet,withseasonaldrought.Redkangaroosoccurinmostsemiaridandaridregionsoftheinterior,whereprecipitationisrelativelylowandvariablefromyeartoyear.SoutheasternAustraliahasawet,coolclimate.SouthernAustraliahascool,moistwintersandwarm,drysummers.Tasmania\nEcologists(生態學家)Scientistorbiologistusingobservations(觀察)andexperimentstotestexplanations(解釋)forthedistribution(分佈)andabundance(豐度)ofspecies.\nSubfieldsofEcology(生態學之次領域)Organismalecology(個體生態學)---Studieshowanorganism’sstructure,physiology,and(foranimals)behaviormeetthechallengesposedbytheenvironment.Figure50.3a.Organismalecology.Howdohumpbackwhalesselecttheircalvingareas?\nPopulationecology(族群生態學)Concentratesmainlyonfactors(因子)thataffecthowmanyindividualsofaparticularspeciesliveinanarea.Figure50.3b.Populationecology.Whatenvironmentalfactorsaffectthereproductiverateofdeermice?\nCommunityecology(群聚生態學)Dealswiththewholearrayofinteractingspeciesinacommunity.Figure50.3cCommunityecology.Whatfactorsinfluencethediversityofspecies(種的歧異度)thatmakeupaparticularforest?\nEcosystemecology(生態系生態學)Emphasizesenergyflow(能量流)andchemicalcycling(化學循環)amongthevariousbioticandabioticcomponents(非生物與生物組成).Figure50.3dEcosystemecology.Whatfactorscontrolphotosyntheticproductivityinatemperategrasslandecosystem(草原生態系)?\nLandscapeecology(景觀生態學)Dealswitharraysofecosystemsandhowtheyarearrangedinageographicregion(地理位置).Figure50.3e.Landscapeecology.Towhatextentdothetreesliningthedrainagechannelsinthislandscapeserveascorridorsofdispersalforforestanimals?\nThebiosphere(生物圈)-Istheglobalecosystem,thesumofalltheplanet’secosystems.(全球生態系是地球所有生態系的總和)-TheEarthistheBiosphere1.(地球是生物圈一號)\n生物圈二號(Biosphere2)定名為生物圈2號，是因為這是模仿第一個生物圈－地球的生態交流所建的第二個生物圈。亦即地球是生物圈1號。生物圈2號建於亞利桑納州的奧拉克爾，金主是德州富豪巴斯，佔地三點一英畝，約五層樓高，是以玻璃和鋼筋與外界隔絕的密閉溫室。裡面經人工規劃成熱帶雨林、熱帶大草原、沼澤、沙漠以及海洋等五種自然環境，擁有千餘種昆蟲、鳥類、動物及魚類，以提供8名研究人員不假外界援助而得獨立生活的自足生活系統，不幸結果卻演變成充滿二氧化碳和氮氣的惡地，藤蔓叢生，蟑螂、螞蟻和螽斯橫行。\n生物圈2號内各個组成部分及結構参數區域面積(m2)體積(m3)土壤(m3)水分(m3)大氣(m3)集約農業區20003800027206035220居住区區1000110002110997熱帶雨林200035000600010028900熱帶草原/海洋/沼澤2500490004000340041600沙漠140022000400040017600西肺1800150000015000南肺180015750075015000註:上述两“肺”的體積僅為止其完全膨漲的50%\nEcologyandEnvironmentalIssuesEcologyProvidesthescientificunderstandingunderlyingenvironmentalissuesRachelCarsonIscreditedwithstartingthemodernenvironmentalmovement.Figure50.4\nMostecologistsfollowtheprecautionaryprincipleregardingenvironmentalissues.Theprecautionaryprinciple(預警原理/準則)Basicallystatesthathumansneedtobeconcernedwithhowtheiractionsaffecttheenvironment.\n報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？\nConcept50.2:InteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironmentlimitthedistributionofspeciesEcologistsHavelongrecognizedglobalandregionalpatternsofdistributionoforganismswithinthebiosphere\nManynaturalists(自然學家)Begantoidentifybroadpatternsofdistributionbynamingbiogeographicrealms(生物地理範圍)TropicofCancer(23.5N)EquatorNearcticNeotropicalEthiopianOrientalAustralianPalearctic(23.5S)TropicofCapricornFigure50.5新北極區舊北極區東方區新熱帶區衣索比亞區澳大利亞區\nBiogeography(生物地理學)ProvidesagoodstartingpointforunderstandingwhatlimitsthegeographicdistributionofspeciesFigure50.6SpeciesabsentbecauseYesNoDispersallimitsdistribution?Behaviorlimitsdistribution?Bioticfactors(otherspecies)limitdistribution?Abioticfactorslimitdistribution?YesNoYesNoAreainaccessibleorinsufficienttimeHabitatselectionPredation,parasitism,competition,diseaseWaterOxygenSalinitypHSoilnutrients,etc.TemperatureLightSoilstructureFireMoisture,etc.ChemicalfactorsPhysicalfactors\nDispersalandDistribution(散佈與分佈)Dispersal(散佈)IsthemovementofindividualsawayfromcentersofhighpopulationdensityorfromtheirareaoforiginContributestotheglobaldistributionoforganisms\nNewareasoccupiedYear199619891974NaturalRangeExpansionsShowtheinfluenceofdispersalondistribution.Figure50.7.Spreadofbreedingpopulationsofthegreat-tailedgrackle(長尾白頭翁)intheUSAfrom1974to1996.Thegrackleexpandeditsbreedingrangesubstantiallyinjust22years.\nSpeciesTransplants(物種轉移)SpeciestransplantsIncludeorganismsthatareintentionally(有目的地/有意地)oraccidentally(意外地/無意地)relocated(重新定位/位移)fromtheiroriginaldistributionCanoftendisruptthecommunitiesorecosystemstowhichtheyhavebeenintroduced\nBehaviorandHabitatSelectionSomeorganismsDonotoccupyalloftheirpotentialrangeSpeciesdistributionMaybelimitedbyhabitatselectionbehavior\n報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？\nBioticFactors(生物因子)BioticfactorsthataffectthedistributionoforganismsmayincludeInteractionswithotherspecies(種間互動)Predation(捕食作用)Competition(競爭作用)\nAspecificcaseofanherbivorelimitingdistributionofafoodspecies:RemovalandAdditionFigure50.8W.J.Fletchertestedtheeffectsoftwoalgae-eatinganimals,seaurchinsandlimpets,onseaweedabundancenearSydney,Australia.Inareasadjacenttoacontrolsite,eithertheurchins,thelimpets,orbothwereremoved.EXPERIMENTRESULTSFletcherobservedalargedifferenceinseaweedgrowthbetweenareaswithandwithoutseaurchins.100806040200Limpet帽貝Seaurchin海膽BothlimpetsandurchinsremovedOnlyurchinsremovedOnlylimpetsremovedAugust1982February1983August1983February1984Control(bothurchinsandlimpetspresent)Seaweedcover(%)Removingbothlimpetsandurchinsorremovingonlyurchinsincreasedseaweedcoverdramatically.Almostnoseaweedgrewinareaswherebothurchinsandlimpetswerepresent,orwhereonlylimpetswereremoved.Removingbothlimpetsandurchinsresultedinthegreatestincreaseofseaweedcover,indicatingthatbothspecieshavesomeinfluenceonseaweeddistribution.Butsinceremovingonlyurchinsgreatlyincreasedseaweedgrowthwhileremovingonlylimpetshadlittleeffect,Fletcherconcludedthatseaurchinshaveamuchgreatereffectthanlimpetsinlimitingseaweeddistribution.CONCLUSION海草覆蓋度\nAbioticFactors(非生物因子)AbioticfactorsthataffectthedistributionoforganismsmayincludeTemperature(溫度)Water(水)Sunlight(日光)Wind(風)Rocksandsoil(岩石與土壤)\nTemperatureEnvironmentaltemperatureIsanimportantfactorinthedistributionoforganismsbecauseofitseffectsonbiologicalprocesses\nWaterWateravailabilityamonghabitatsIsanotherimportantfactorinspeciesdistribution\nSunlightLightintensityandqualityCanaffectphotosynthesisinecosystemsLightIsalsoimportanttothedevelopmentandbehavioroforganismssensitivetothephotoperiod(光週期)\nWindWindAmplifiestheeffectsoftemperatureonorganismsbyincreasingheatlossduetoevaporation(蒸發作用)andconvection(對流)CanchangethemorphologyofplantsFigure50.9\nRocksandSoilManycharacteristicsofsoillimitthedistributionofplantsandthustheanimalsthatfeeduponthemPhysicalstructure(物理結構)pH(酸鹼度)Mineralcomposition(礦物組成)\nClimateFourmajorabioticcomponentsmakeupclimateTemperature,water,sunlight,andwindClimateIstheprevailing(盛行的/流行的)weatherconditionsinaparticulararea\nMacroclimateandmicroclimate(巨氣候與微氣候)ClimatepatternscanbedescribedontwoscalesMacroclimate(巨氣候),patternsontheglobal,regional,andlocallevelMicroclimate(微氣候),veryfinepatterns,suchasthoseencounteredbythecommunityoforganismsunderneathafallenlog\nGlobalClimatePatternsEarth’sglobalclimatepatternsAredeterminedlargelybytheinputofsolarenergyandtheplanet’smovementinspace\nSunlightintensityplaysamajorpartindeterminingtheEarth’sclimatepatternsFigure50.10.LatitudinalvariationandsunlightintensityLowangleofincomingsunlightSunlightdirectlyoverheadLowangleofincomingsunlightNorthPole60N30NTropicofCancer0(equator)30S60SAtmosphereTropicofCapricornSouthpoleLatitudinalvariationinsunlightintensity低角度的入射日光低角度的入射日光日光正位於頭頂上方南極北極\nFigure50.10Junesolstice:NorthernHemispheretiltstowardsun;summerbeginsinNorthernHemisphere;winterbeginsinSouthernHemisphere.Marchequinox:Equatorfacessundirectly;neitherpoletiltstowardsun;allregionsonEarthexperience12hoursofdaylightand12hoursofdarkness.60N30N0(equator)30SConstanttiltof23.5Septemberequinox:Equatorfacessundirectly;neitherpoletiltstowardsun;allregionsonEarthexperience12hoursofdaylightand12hoursofdarkness.Decembersolstice:NorthernHemispheretiltsawayfromsun;winterbeginsinNorthernHemisphere;summerbeginsinSouthernHemisphere.Seasonalvariationinsunlightintensity六月夏至十二月冬至三月春分九月秋分地球因其軸的傾斜造成溫度與光強度隨地球環繞太陽而週期性變化\nGlobalaircirculationandprecipitationpatternsAircirculationandwindpatternsplaymajorpartsindeterminingtheEarth’sclimatepatternsDescendingdryairabsorbsmoistureAscendingmoistairreleasesmoistureDescendingdryairabsorbsmoisture3023.5023.530AridzoneTropics60N30N0(equator)30S60SFigure50.10Aridzone乾燥區乾燥區熱帶區下降的乾空氣吸收水氣下降的乾空氣吸收水氣上升的溼空氣釋出水氣靠近赤道的空氣循環與降雨全球氣流循環因加熱而移動的空氣在赤道兩側產生三個主要的空氣循環，在每一個循環胞內，上升的空氣質(藍色)以降雨方式釋出水氣，而下降的空氣(褐色)則吸收水氣，產生乾燥的環境。\nGlobalaircirculationandprecipitationpatternsGLOBALWINDPATTERNS全球風型式Figure50.10WesterliesNortheasttradesDoldrumsSoutheasttradesWesterliesAntarcticCircle南極圈60S30S0(equator)30N60NArcticCircle北極圈西風帶東北季風赤道無風帶東南季風西風帶\nRegional,Local,andSeasonalEffectsonClimateVariousfeaturesofthelandscapeContributetolocalvariationsinclimate\nBodiesofWaterOceansandtheircurrents,andlargelakesmoderatetheclimateofnearbyterrestrialenvironmentsFigure50.11.Moderatingeffectsoflargebodiesofwateronclimate.Thisfigureillustrateswhathappensonawarmsummerday.3.Coolerairsinksoverwater2.Aircoolsathighelevation.1.Warmairoverlandrises.4.Coolairoverwatermovesinland,replacingrisingwarmairoverland.\nMountainshaveasignificanteffectonTheamountofsunlightreachinganareaLocaltemperatureRainfallMountains2.Fartherinland,precipitationincreasesagainastheairmovesupandoverhighermountains.Someoftheworld’sdeepestsnowpacksoccurhere.Figure50.12.Howmountainsaffectrainfall.3.OntheeasternsideoftheSierraNevada,thereislittleprecipitation.Asaresultofthisrainshadow,muchofcentralNevadaisdesert.1.AsmoistairmovesinoffthePacificOceanandencountersthewesternmostmountains,itflowsupward,coolsathigheraltitudes,anddropsalargeamountofwater.Theworld’stallesttrees,thecoastalredwoods,thrivehere.EastPacificOceanWinddirectionCoastRangeSierraNevada風向海岸山脈\nSeasonality(季節性)Theangleofthesun(太陽角度)Leadstomanyseasonalchangesinlocalenvironments\nLakesaresensitivetoseasonaltemperaturechangeandExperienceseasonalturnover(季節性翻轉)SeasonalturnoverinlakeswithwintericecoverFigure50.13.Seasonalturnoverinlakeswithwintericecover2.Inspring,asthesunmeltstheice,thesurfacewaterwarmsto4°Candsinksbelowthecoolerlayersimmediatelybelow,eliminatingthethermalstratification.Springwindsmixthewatertogreatdepth,bringingoxygen(O2)tothebottomwaters(seegraphs)andnutrientstothesurface.1.Inwinter,thecoldestwaterinthelake(0°C)liesjustbelowthesurfaceice;waterisprogressivelywarmeratdeeperlevelsofthelake,typically4–5°Catthebottom.4.Inautumn,assurfacewatercoolsrapidly,itsinksbelowtheunderlyinglayers,remixingthewateruntilthesurfacebeginstofreezeandthewintertemperatureprofileisreestablished.3.Insummer,thelakeregainsadistinctivethermalprofile,withwarmsurfacewaterseparatedfromcoldbottomwaterbyanarrowverticalzoneofrapidtemperaturechange,calledathermocline.WinterSpringHighMediumLowO2concentrationO2(mg/L)Lakedepth(m)048128162481624Lakedepth(m)O2(mg/L)O2(mg/L)Lakedepth(m)0481281624O2(mg/L)Lakedepth(m)0481281624AutumnSummer4C444444C444204C444444C681820225Thermocline04812\nMicroclimate(微氣候)MicroclimateIsdeterminedbyfine-scaledifferencesinabioticfactors\nLong-TermClimateChange(長期氣候變遷)Onewaytopredictfutureglobalclimatechange.IstolookbackatthechangesthatoccurredpreviouslyFigure50.14.CurrentrangeandpredictedrangefortheAmericanbeechundertwoscenariosofclimatechange.CurrentrangePredictedrangeOverlap(a)4.5Cwarmingovernextcentury(b)6.5Cwarmingovernextcentury\n報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？\nConcept50.3:Abioticandbioticfactorsinfluencethestructureanddynamicsofaquaticbiomes(水域生物相)VaryingcombinationsofbothbioticandabioticfactorsDeterminethenatureofEarth’smanybiomesBiomes(生物相、生物群落、生物群域)Arethemajortypesofecologicalassociationsthatoccupybroadgeographicregionsoflandorwater\nThedistributionofmajoraquaticbiomesTheexaminationofbiomes(生物相)willbeginwithEarth’saquaticbiomesFigure50.1530NTropicofCancerEquator30SContinentalshelfLakesCoralreefsRiversOceanicpelagiczoneEstuariesIntertidalzoneAbyssalzone(belowoceanicpelagiczone)深海區KeyTropicofCapricorn\nAquaticbiomes(水域生物相)AccountforthelargestpartofthebiosphereintermsofareaCancontainfreshorsaltwater(淡水或鹹水)OceansCoverabout75%ofEarth’ssurfaceHaveanenormousimpactonthebiosphere\nStratificationofaquaticbiomes(水域生物相的分層)Manyaquaticbiomesarestratifiedintozonesorlayersdefinedbylightpenetration,temperature,anddepth(b)Marinezonation.Likelakes,themarineenvironmentisgenerallyclassifiedonthebasisoflightpenetration(photicandaphoticzones),distancefromshoreandwaterdepth(intertidal,neritic,andoceaniczones),andwhetheritisopenwater(pelagiczone)orbottom(benthicandabyssalzones).(a)Zonationinalake.Thelakeenvironmentisgenerallyclassifiedonthebasisofthreephysicalcriteria:lightpenetration(photicandaphoticzones),distancefromshoreandwaterdepth(littoralandlimneticzones),andwhetheritisopenwater(pelagiczone)orbottom(benthiczone).Figure50.16a,bLittoralzone延岸區Limneticzone湖沼區PhoticzoneBenthiczoneAphoticzonePelagiczone潮間帶IntertidalzoneNeriticzoneOceaniczone0200mContinentalshelfPhoticzonePelagiczoneAphoticzoneBenthiczone2,500–6,000m深海區Abyssalzone(deepestregionsofoceanfloor)透光區底棲區無光區遠洋區湖泊的分層海洋的分層\nLakes(湖泊)Figure50.17Anoligotrophiclake(貧養湖)inGrandTeton,WyomingAeutrophiclake(優養湖)inOkavangodelta,BotswanaLAKES\nWetlands(溼地)Figure50.17.OkefenokeeNationalWetlandReserveinGeorgia\nStreamsandrivers(溪流與河川)Figure50.17AheadwaterstreamintheGreatSmokyMountainsTheMississippiRiverfarformitsheadwaters\nEstuaries(河口)Figure50.17.AnestuaryinalowcoastalplainofGeorgia\nIntertidalzones(潮間帶)Figure50.17.RockyintertidalzoneontheOregoncoast\nOceanicpelagicbiome(大洋區生物相)Figure50.17.OpenoceanofftheislandofHawaii\nCoralreefs(珊瑚礁)Figure50.17.AcoralreefintheRedSea\nMarinebenthiczone(底棲區)Figure50.17.Adeep-seahydrothermalventcommunity深海噴泉群落\n報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？\nConcept50.4:Climatelargelydeterminesthedistributionandstructureofterrestrialbiomes(氣候主要決定陸域生物相的分佈與結構)Climate(氣候)Isparticularlyimportantindeterminingwhyparticularterrestrialbiomesarefoundincertainareas\nClimateandTerrestrialBiomes(氣候與陸域生物相)Climatehasagreatimpactonthedistributionoforganisms,asseenonaclimograph(氣候圖)Figure50.18.AclimographforsomemajortypesofbiomesinNorthAmerica.DesertTemperategrasslandTropicalforestTemperatebroadleafforestConiferousforestArcticandalpinetundraAnnualmeanprecipitation(cm)Annualmeantemperature(ºC)1002003004003015015針葉林極地與高山苔原溫帶森林年平均溫年平均雨量熱帶森林草原沙膜\nThedistributionofmajorterrestrialbiomes主要陸域生物相的分佈30NTropicofCancerEquatorTropicofCapricorn30SKeyTropicalforestSavanna稀樹草原DesertChaparral夏旱灌叢TemperategrasslandTemperatebroadleafforestConiferousforest針葉林Tundra苔原(北極與高山)HighmountainsPolariceFigure50.19北迴歸線南迴歸線熱帶Tropicalarea\nGeneralFeatures(特徵)ofTerrestrialBiomesTerrestrialbiomes(陸域生物相)Areoftennamedformajorphysicalorclimaticfactorsandfortheirpredominantvegetation(優勢植被)Verticalstratification(垂直分層)IsanimportantfeatureofterrestrialbiomesCanopy(林冠),low-treestratum(矮樹層),shrubunderstory(灌叢),groundlayerofherbaceousplant(地面草本植物層),forestfloor(森林地表)(litterlayer落葉層),rootlayer(根層)\nTropicalforest(熱帶森林)Figure50.20.AtropicalrainforestinBorneo\nDesert(沙漠)Figure50.20.TheSonoranDesertinsouthernArizona\nSavanna(稀樹草原)Figure50.20.AtypicalsavannainKenya\nChaparral(夏旱灌叢)Figure50.20.AnareaofchaparralinCalifornia\nTemperategrassland(溫帶草原)Figure50.20.SheyenneNationalGrasslandinNorthDakota\nConiferousforest(針葉林)Figure50.20.RockyMountainNationalParkinColorado\nTemperatebroadleafforest(溫帶闊葉林)Figure50.20.GreatSmokyMountainsNationalParkinNorthCarolina\nTundra(苔原)Figure50.20.DenaliNationalPark,Alaska,inautumn\n報告完畢敬請指教！？！？！？！？！？！？\n谢谢观看/欢迎下载BYFAITHIMEANAVISIONOFGOODONECHERISHESANDTHEENTHUSIASMTHATPUSHESONETOSEEKITSFULFILLMENTREGARDLESSOFOBSTACLES.BYFAITHIBYFAITH